Elephant's brains : Much more then memory's

In the field of cognitive science, there is an important reason for studying elephants: to avoid anthropocentrism.

Most research on animal cognition has focused on species phylogenetically close to humans, such as other primates. However, more and more studies are being conducted, in an ecologically valid manner, with other mammals, domestic animals, reptiles, birds, fish, and even invertebrates.

Currently, three different species have been recognised: the African savannah elephant (Loxodonta africana), the largest species; the forest elephant (Loxodonta cyclotis); and the Asian elephant (Elephas maximus). Jorge Romero-Castillo

Studies with elephants are particularly interesting because they have the largest brain of any land animal. This raises the following question: is there a correlation between brain size and cognitive abilities?

A surprising neural architecture

It has been found that the overwhelming majority of an elephant's neurons (around 97.5%) are concentrated in the cerebellum. There, these nerve cells perform sensorimotor functions that are essential for coordinating their enormous limbs, trunk, and precise facial musculature.

However, the number of cortical neurons—which are involved in the most complex thought processes—is surprisingly low in relation to the volume of their brain: about 5.6 billion, just over 2% of the total. In contrast, the human brain houses about 16 billion cortical neurons, or 19% of all neurons.

Relative size, shape and surface convolutions of the cerebral cortex of human and elephant brains. The common estimate of the absolute size of the adult elephant's brain is 4.7 billion grams (between 4.05 billion and 5.22 billion grams). They have 257 billion neurons, three times more than the average human brain, distributed between the cortex (5.6 billion) and cerebellum (251 billion). In addition, they have a total of 216 billion other cells. Adapted from Hart et al. (2008), CC BY

More cortical folds

Along these lines, another fascinating fact is the degree of cortical folding. The elephant's cortex is folded upon itself at a rate of 4.18 (higher than in humans, which is 2.56). These data indicate that such folding is not related to the number of neurons.

In other words, more folds do not mean more neurons or more complex thinking.

Below is a sample of their cognitive abilities. Some are so striking that, in some cases, they are similar to those of primates and superior to those of other non-primate species.

Elephant memory

Elephants remember the traditional migratory routes of their species very well. In addition, they are able to adapt to changes in the environment and find new paths and water sources in arid environments when necessary (they then pass this knowledge on from generation to generation). This suggests an exceptional cognitive ability for spatial navigation and long-term memory.

They can even remember the current location of many family members. The explanation lies in an unusual development of their working memory, together with a very high sensitivity to smells.

Eusocial behaviour in matriarchal societies

Elephant communities are matriarchal. For some time, several families may join together and establish large herds for the cooperative care of their young. Males remain in the herd until approximately 13 years of age.

In addition, they distinguish up to 200 different calls that they learn through observation and imitation, allowing them to recognise each other within the same herd. This integrated system is called eusociality and demonstrates close cooperation and solidarity between individuals.

Empathy that leaves its mark

Jane Goodall (1934–2025) transformed our view of the animal kingdom. With patience, respect and deep sensitivity, she pioneered the scientific recognition and documentation of complex cognitive behaviours and feelings in non-human animals (in her case, chimpanzees). Her empathy has also left a deep and indelible mark on history. Wikipedia, CC BY

These giants seem to show more empathy than other non-primate species. This is demonstrated, for example, by a study that has compiled reports collected over a period of thirty-five years. In short, elephants can anticipate and respond to harm (to themselves and other individuals). Similarly, they recognise the danger of foreign objects such as darts or spears and help others, especially young ones, out of ditches.

They also subcategorise humans into groups, performing this classification independently, based on smell or colour.

Feelings of grief

They also experience complex feelings associated with death. During their migrations, when they see the remains of a fellow elephant, they show curiosity and approach to investigate; they sniff and touch the lifeless body with their trunks and legs.

Afterwards, they seem to show signs of distress, sadness and compassion, which decreases their overall activity. What's more, sometimes the herd surrounds the corpse, protecting and venerating it. The evidence seems clear: they are exhibiting mourning behaviours.

The theory of mind as self-recognition

The theory of mind, a cognitive ability that allows individuals to attribute mental states to themselves and others, is fundamental to empathy.

One of the elephants in the study by Plotnik et al. (2006), with an “X” mark on the left side of its head. Plotnik et al., 2006., CC BY

One test that assesses theory of mind in non-human animals is the mirror test. It consists of painting an X-shaped mark on the animal's head and placing it in front of a mirror. If the animal spontaneously uses the mirror to touch the mark on its head, this is considered evidence of self-awareness and recognition.

When this experiment was conducted with several elephants, using a visual mark without smell, it was found that their performance was roughly comparable to that of chimpanzees.

This video explains the results of the study conducted by Plotnik et al. (2006) on theory of mind in elephants.

Von Economo neurons

One of the neurophysiological aspects related to theory of mind (and by extension, to the formation of social bonds and empathy) is von Economo neurons (VEN).

Phylogenetic distribution of von Economo neurons (VEN). Species in which VEN have been observed are underlined; species examined without VEN are in italics. Adapted from Hakeem et al., (2008), CC BY

VENs are found in the prefrontal and insular regions of the brains of certain mammals, including humans. They are characterised by large, elongated cell bodies and a long axon that projects to distant regions of the brain. This morphology appears to have arisen independently in hominids, cetaceans, and elephants.

It should be noted that, although elephants have VENs, they share this trait only with other groups of large-brained animals (cetaceans and great apes—chimpanzees, bonobos, gorillas, orangutans, and humans) and not with their closest relatives.

The specialisation of these neurons could be the result of a need for rapid transmission of social information. Perhaps it is a characteristic shared by large-brained mammals. However, to answer this question, it would be interesting to determine whether giraffes and hippopotamuses, for example, also possess them.

Tool use and planning

Despite the historical importance of tool use in elephants, its level and complexity does not compare to the highly coordinated repertoire described for chimpanzees (whose brains are one-tenth the size of an elephant's brain).

Elephants can carry tree branches in their trunks to protect themselves from flies, scratch themselves with a stick, and throw sticks or stones at rodents competing for fruit under a tree.

Recently, the problem-solving ability of wild Asian elephants was analysed for the first time using a multiple-access device, a kind of puzzle. Their success shows that they are capable of planning movements to solve complex problems and adapting to the demands of their environment.

On the left, a male elephant interacting with one of the puzzle boxes. On the right is a diagram of the puzzle with the doors closed and open: the top door is push-type, the middle door is pull-type, and the bottom door is sliding-type. This method evaluates innovation: the ability to discover one or more solutions. Of the 44 elephants that interacted with the box, 11 solved one type of door, 8 solved two types of doors, and 5 elephants solved all three types of doors in all their interactions. Jacobson et al., (2023), CC BY

More than an anthropocentric privilege

In the company of these titans, we have seen that, rather than the absolute size of the brain, cognitive abilities seem to be related to factors such as the distribution and connections of neurons, especially in the cerebral cortex.

It seems clear that higher cognitive behaviours are not a privilege of humans, but a natural consequence of evolution in many species, including elephants.